In downtown areas the roads were Ghiglieri's traffic signal had the option of being either manual or automatic. Many gravel roads were later built over with planks. Just a little over 125 years ago asphalt was so rare, it was described as being like magic. Compare that to today, when it has become so commonplace, we barely give it a second glance as miles and miles of it disappear beneath the wheels of our cars. For these mixes, the tar binder constituted about 6 percent by weight of the total mix (air voids of about 17 percent). One of the first was Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington D.C. Today in America, most of our roadways and streets are paved with asphalt concrete. Some of the survey results include: PCC was first used as a base for other wearing courses in London in 1872 (after Tillson, 1900) and in New York in 1888 (base for stone surfacing). The largest public works project to date, this new bill encouraged the adoption of many new and revolutionary asphalt paving techniques and equipment, including electronic leveling controls, extra-wide finishers for paving two lanes at once and vibratory steel-wheel rollers. It prevented the build-up of ruts often found in dirt roads and had the additional advantage of not getting muddy in wet weather, or dusty in dry weather. To go due north was to go into the Kalahari desert. If all of the WSDOT highway network (say, 28,800 lane-km) was maintained in a similar cost manner, it would cost about $0.75 billion (over five times as much as today). 10 sieve. Summa Crusta (surfacing): Smooth, polygonal blocks bedded in underlying layer. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/history-of-american-roads-4077442. This law authorizedPaved Roads in America the Bureau of Public Roads to fund state highway agencies. The first such pavement placed in the U.S. was in Newark, New Jersey, in 1870. We use roads to get us to work, home, or a night on the town. Before, they were provided every 9.1 to 30.5 m. Expansion joints were expensive to construct properly and difficult to maintain. History of Roads. Because states were hiring many different people and businesses to build roads, the government needed a way to ensure that all contributors to the roads would be paid. Paving contractors still are required to post these historic surety bonds. Public Roads Administration, Highway Practice in the United States of America, Public Roads Administration, Federal Works Agency, Washington, D.C., 1949. The oldest constructed roads discovered to date are in former Mesopotamia, now known as Iraq. Outside cities, roads were dirt or gravel; mud in the winter and dust in the summer. As the production of asphalt rises, different technologies were invented to further improve the process. Country roads in Small Town America now paved. The Menai Suspension Bridge in North Wales, completed in 1826-is considered one of the greatest examples of iron works ever built. What were the roads made of in London in the 1800s? Updated construction estimates of the Appian Way in Italy are about $2,000,000 per km (updated estimates following Rose [1935] and Leger [1875]). Thus, we have seen pavement structures decrease from about 0.9 m (3 feet) for Roman designs to 350 to 450 mm for Telford designs, to about 250 mm for Macadam designs, to 100 mm at about the turn of the century (refer to Figure 4). John Dunlap, U.K., greatly improved the design of the pneumatic tire in 1888 although only used on cycles until about 1900. Standard thicknesses ranged from 125 to 230 mm with transverse expansion joints every 9.1 m (and at the end of a days work). McAdam, born in 1756, designed roads with harder surface using broken stones placed in symmetrical, tight patterns and covered with smaller stones. At that time, such pavements were considered suitable only for light traffic (not for urban streets). determination of shear strength (cohesion and f angle), and. Westinghouse Co., Air Brake Tests, The Westinghouse Air Brake Co., Wilmerding, Pennsylvania, 1904. At first, roads were not paved, but by the 4th millennium BCE, paving was already developing in the Indus region using baked bricks. Bellis, Mary. (after Collins and Hart [1936]). Artificial cement was made from proportioned ingredients and became known as Portlands (named after the natural limestone rock found on the Portland Bill, which is a small projection of land into the English Channel near Weymouth on the southern U.K. coast). On protection and testing of cement. A variety of equivalency factors can be used depending on the pavement section which is defined by a Structural Number and the terminal serviceability index (for flexible pavements). Interestingly, portland cement concrete (PCC) was not used as a pavement wearing course much until after about 1910 (Agg, 1940); however, it was regularly used as a stiff base to support other wearing courses such as wooden blocks, bricks, cobble stones, etc. Whether constructing a new pavement or preserving an existing one, asphalt meets many of todays needs in maintaining our extensive highway network in the United States. Barber, E.S., Application of Triaxial Compression Test Results to the Calculation of Flexible Pavement Thickness, Proceedings, Highway Research Board, Washington, D.C., December 5-8, 1946. These stone paved streets date back to about 4000 B.C.in the Mesopotamia cities of Ur and Babylon. These structures had crowned (sloped) surfaces to enhance drainage and often incorporated ditches and/or underground drains. Some of the early paving materials have been previously discussed; however, it might be interesting to compare a few prices. Joints: Expansion joints were not needed if contraction joints were frequently spaced (short panels). The question is "WERE there roads in the Persian empire". A product of Belgian chemist Edmund J. Desmelt, this modern equivalent of the asphalt paving we use today was put down in front of City Hall on William street. How were roads built in the 1800s? Because of this, engineers of the 18th century began to build roads with many layers. Failure to achieve adequate strength gain prior to opening streets to traffic. Paved roads have come a long way since they were first made in 4000 B.C. Apparently, there is no record of traditional roads in the U.K. prior to the Romans [Collins and Hart, 1936]. Telford is well known for many engineering successes involving bridges, canals, roads, harbors and docks. Generally, the concrete layer was 100 mm thick for light traffic and 150 mm thick for heavy traffic [Baker, 1903]. The design curves also embody the assumption of the pavement structure lying on compacted soils (at least 300 mm of compacted subgrade). Research on how to create the highway system continued. By the 1850's practically all . Sound familiar? McAdam's design, called "macadam roads," provided the greatest advancement in road construction. When the US entered the Korean War in 1950, though, the highway program was overlooked. An Act of 1751 prohibited wagons on turnpike roads with wheel rims less than 225 mm wide (a bit narrower than todays heavy truck tires). Entry into World War II swung the focus to building roads where the military needed them. The goal was to construct an interstate system of two-lane, paved highways. Were you born before the electronic crosswalk signs? In 1824, large blocks of natural asphalt rock . By 1850, about 2,200 km of macadam type pavements were in use in the urban areas of the UK. Modern tarred roads were the result of the work of two Scottish engineers, Thomas Telford and John Loudon McAdam. Three reasons have been given for this [Public Roads Administration, 1949]: In a 1939 paper, Gray overviewed flexible pavement practice for the U.S. states. [1. Roads in America today are mostly paved with asphalt concrete. Long before Europeans ever stepped foot on shore, the natives of the new world had already discovered the advantages of using asphalt as an adhesive for constructing tools, walls, homes and, even paths. Jaster, J., G.F. Schlesinger, J.S. They generated high noise levels, were rough and labor intensive (slave and statue labor often used). By 1925, the annual constructed lane-kilometers had increased to 1530. [1. Transportation innovations boomed in the 19th century, includingsteamships, canals, andrailroads. The cobblestones were then configured into city roads. Roman road system, outstanding transportation network of the ancient Mediterranean world, extending from Britain to the Tigris-Euphrates river system and from the Danube River to Spain and northern Africa. The papers by Burggraf in 1938, 1939, and 1940 summarized the results of extensive field shear tests made on flexible pavement layers. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/history-of-roads-1992370. These concerns were part of the mission created by the establishment of the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) in 1966. Thomas Telford (born 1757) improved the method of building roads with broken stones by analyzing stone thickness, road traffic, road alignment, and gradient slopes. The mixture consisted of 30 percent graded crushed rock or gravel (all passing 12.5 mm sieve, about 58 to 62 percent sand (material passing 2.0 mm and retained on 75 m), 8 to 12 percent filler (material passing 75 m sieve). A sidewalk (North American English), pavement (British English), footpath in Australia, India, New Zealand and Ireland, or footway, is a path along the side of a street, highway, terminals.Usually constructed of concrete, pavers, brick, stone, or asphalt, it is designed for pedestrians. It had a budget of $10,000 to promote new rural road development, which at that time were mostly dirt roads. Credit: Wikimedia Commons. 1, Iowa State Highway Commission, Ames, Iowa, May 1, 1916. The one material characterization test which had a tremendous impact on design and to some extent still does, was the development of the California Bearing Ratio (CBR). It should be noted at this point that an early source of asphalt binder in the U.S. was from Trinidad (near the coast of Venezuela). Road & Track participates in various affiliate marketing programs, which means we may get paid commissions on editorially chosen products purchased through our links to retailer sites. The simple answer is no, the Persians only had dirt paths they travelled on but not "roads" by definition being a paved path. estimation of moduli similar to a modulus of elasticity [Barber, 1946; Worley, 1943, Palmer and Barber, 1940]. Contemporary asphalt roads capable of supporting the vehicles that emerged in the 20th century built upon McAdams' methods by adding tar as a binder. . This evolution accelerated greatly in the 1930s and 1940s as the prior information, hopefully, suggests. By the mid-1800s, Ohio's main roads had been much improved. Some might argue that Patent 727,504 issued to Edward Walker of Warren, Pennsylvania, was actually just as important the ice cream freezer! Hveem and Carmany in a 1948 paper showed that the thickness of surfacing and base was proportional to the tire pressure and the number of load applications. Stuart and Michael Frost have been on asphalt paving crews since they were kids and have owned highway paving company Mountain Construction in Powell for more than 20 years. Postal Service in 1963 to help sort and. Specifically, the Roads Act of 1920 increased the maximum empty weight of a heavy traction engine from 14 to 15.5 tons and, if equipped with rubber types instead of steel wheels, could travel at legal speeds of 19 kph instead of 8 kph [Collins and Hart, 1936]. Eventually, his design became the norm for all roads everywhere. In general, the American public supported the idea of a new Interstate Highway system. Trinidad supplied about 90 percent of all asphalt (worldwide) from 1875 to 1900 [Baker, 1903]. This law gave funding to states for them to improve their roads. Cement, a mixture of powdered limestone and clay, is an ingredient in concrete along with water, sand, and gravel. Bellis, Mary. When Were Paved Roadways Developed? penetration) which represents the bearing value of a crushed rock material (refer to standard curve 100% in Figure 5). and Carmany, R.M., The Factors Underlying the Rational Design of Pavements, Proceedings, Highway Research Board, Washington, D.C., December 7-10, 1948. But the desire for paved roads was already in place long before the first affordable automobile. The first PCC pavement in the U.S. was constructed in 1891 in Bellefontaine, Ohio. Today, the National Road is part of US Route 40. U.S. Patent Office, Official Gazette of the United States Patent Office, May 5 to June 30, inclusive, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1903. How to Supercharge the Air Going Into Your Engine, The CT4-V Blackwing Is One of the All-Time Greats, Watch This Abandoned E39 M5 Get an AMMO NYC Detail, VW Dealer Apologizes for Slurs on Oil Stickers, Four Ferraris Stolen From New York Service Center. The name Magee-Hale Park-O-Meter Company was later changed to the P.O.M. In 1909, in Wayne County, Michigan, a PCC highway system was constructed. Paved roads allow for quicker travel and a smooth ride. During some construction, the City of Fayetteville, North Carolina, uncovered the log foundation of the Fayetteville Plank Road in the downtown area. These moduli were used in the formula shown as Note 1 in Table 1.4. Bellis, Mary. Sheet asphalt placed on a concrete base (foundation) became popular during the mid-1800s with the first such pavement of this type being built in Paris in 1858. After everything of value is removed, the leftovers are made into asphalt cement for pavement. What was the name of the first National Road? The test provides a quick method of comparing base and subgrade materials. Frederick J. Warren filed a patent for "Bitulithic" pavement, a mixture of bitumen and aggregate ("bitu" from "bitumen" and "lithic" from "lithos," the Greek word for rock). These stone paved streets date back to about 4000 B.C. The following classes were reported [1939]: Work by Hubbard and Field [1940] for The Asphalt Institute tended to downplay the importance of subgrade bearing values, and instead, emphasized the importance of surface deflection testing as a way to characterize the overall pavement structure. The Interstate Highways we use today did not come about easily. Some of the earliest recorded information about materials which could be (and were) used in pavements concern hydraulic cement and the Romans; however, in fairness, the earliest known use of hydraulic lime was in Syria about 6,500 B.C. Roman roads in some countries have been up to 2.4 m thick. Rules are one method of controlling traffic, however, many inventions are used to support traffic control. People couldnt agree on whether the roads would be built in rural or urban areas. Almost all slabs ranged in thickness from 150 to 250 mm. Telford and Macadam Telford Indeed, in 1909, Wayne County paved the entire stretch of Woodward - already significant in automotive history - from Six Mile to Seven Mile in concrete at a cost of nearly $14,000, replacing a road surface that up until then consisted of dirt or wood planks. This included making the switch to refined petroleum-based asphalt pavement, as well as the introduction of the mechanical drum mixers and spreaders. Table 1 provides an overview of a few of the flexible pavement design procedures available in 1949 [Gray, 1949]. and B.F. Himmelman, A Dynamic Committee in a Century of Change, ASTM Standardization News, November 1986. An interesting quote attributed to Macadam about allowable maximum aggregate sizes was that no stone larger than will enter a mans mouth should go into a road [Gillette, 1906]. What Is Shallow Pavement and How Can You Fix It? Public Roads, http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/publicroads/96summer/p96su10.cfm] Then, in 1941, the Interstate Highway system construction was sidelined again as the US became more involved in World War II. Rose, A.C., When All Roads Led to Rome, Bureau of Public Roads, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., 1935. James Hoge patented (1,251,666) manually controlled traffic lights in 1913, which were installed in Cleveland, Ohio a year later by the American Traffic Signal Company. An example of these 22 kN (5000 lb) EWL constants are shown in Table 3. Wheeled transport [ edit] Roads were often named according to their termini-Blanco-San Antonio Road, for instance. History of Roads in America and First Federal Highway. (510) 894-1921 Fax: (510) 509-2737 They were invented by J P Knight. Prophetically, Frank Seiberling, who was Goodyears first president, told the U.S. Chamber of Commerce meeting in Chicago just five days after that first 23-day Wingfoot Express run to Boston that, The introduction of the motor truck into our commercial life sounds the death knell for the short line railroad.. A great deal of consideration must be put into where roads should go in order to minimize disruptions and the make them as direct as possible, while simultaneously keeping slopes reasonable in hilly areas for performance and safety reasons. on When Were Paved Roads Invented">Read more</a></p> [1. States focused on building several small roads instead of interstate highways as a way to provide as many jobs as possible. Now, the government could safely fund the construction of many highways by ensuring, through the Miller Act, that everyone would receive payment for them. In Trumans plan, the interstate highways would be funded half by the states they were built in and half by the federal government. It is this specific layer which makes the Telford design unique [Baker, 1903]. This system was created by the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1925 as a response to the confusion created by the 250 or so named many named . Because of this, many states passed Little Miller Acts in the years following 1935. Now that an automobile was within reach for many more Americans, it created more desire for better roads. (A fine aggregate or modified Topeka asphaltic concrete is mentioned in a 1926 Standard Oil Co. of California publication [Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company, 1985]. Two other Scottish engineers, Thomas Telford and John Loudon McAdam are credited with the first modern roads. In the 1800s, most cobblestones arrived on ships from Europe as ballast. Located on the west bank of the Nile, southwest of central Cairo, at over 4,600 years old, it was used to transport the enormous blocks of basalt for building . Today, Elfreth's Alley is still paved with old cobblestones. Disc brakes were invented in 1889 by Elmer Ambrose Sperry, an American inventor and entrepreneur. She is known for her independent films and documentaries, including one about Alexander Graham Bell. By the 1880s, asphalt binders were regularly produced in California and by 1902 in Texas as well. Our car experts choose every product we feature. Call Us Sheet asphalt placed on a concrete base (foundation) became popular during the mid-1800s with the first such pavement of this . This system of highways existed. The year 1909 is noteworthy in the U.S. since this is the time which is generally used to mark the beginning of PCC as a structural wearing course (paving projects in Wayne County, Michigan [Bateman, 1928]). Much like a modern highway, it did not go through less important towns along the way, and it largely ignored geographical obstacles. The first known motorized bike was invented in the 1860s in France. Today, with more than 70 million metric tons recycled each year, asphalt pavement is Americas most recycled product. The first application of asphalt paving took place in Newark, N.J in 1870. Concrete's invention was made possible by the development of cement, and to trace the history of cement, we must trace the use of its components. A typical state such as Kansas applied 50 mm of asphalt concrete over a 175 mm thick PCC slab (urban areas). Today, there are an estimated 2.3 million miles of paved road . By investigating and testing the associated materials, an empirical relationship can be established between CBR values, pavement thickness, and performance. The general use of stage construction did not readily lend itself to the evolving scientific methods of design. AASHTO, AASHTO Interim Guide for Design of Pavement Structures 1972 Chapter III Revised 1981, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C., 1981. It would connect Cumberland, Maryland to the Ohio River. and C.A. "History of Roads." This material became known as Bitulithic.. Telford improved road building further by analyzing stone thickness, road traffic, road alignment and gradient slopes. "History of Roads." Cookies collect information about your preferences and your devices and are used to make the site work as you expect it to, to understand how you interact with the site, and to show advertisements that are targeted to your interests. Finding your way took time, patience and luck since most roads were originally trails carved out by wild animals or Native Americans. Porter of the California Division of Highways stated in a 1942 Highway Research Board paper: The bearing ratio test was devised in 1929 in an attempt to eliminate some of the objections to field loading tests and to provide a quick method for comparing local base and subbase materials. With regard to material testing, the year 1898 was significant: the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) was established. A brief view of how pavement design, construction and performance has evolved should help provide perspective on present and, possible, future practice. The construction of the road coincides with the arrival of the first farmers in the U.K. about 4,000 B.C. (Note: original asphalt prices from Byrne in 1896.). These self-driving vehicles use arrays of sensors to monitor their surroundings, and wireless communications to talk to each other and the cloud. Centuries later, in 1915, Canada's first asphalt paved roads were built in Ottawa, Ontario and Edmonton, Jasper and Camrose, Alberta. Centuries would pass before asphalt was used in Europe and America. The oldest constructed roads discovered to date are in former Mesopotamia, now known as Iraq. High quality and very durable fine and coarse aggregates are crushed to an angular shape and properly sized prior to incorporation in the final product to provide additional stability to support heavy truck loading. Paving with cobblestones allowed a road to be heavily used all year long. The oldest known road in the U.K. is near the River Brue in southwestern England [Coles, 1989]. The penetration test determines the materials resistance to lateral displacement resulting in a combined measure of the influence of cohesion and internal friction. Up to the early 1900s, the design emphasis was placed on the use of fixed standards occasionally modified for local soil conditions. . on repeated loading effects on the strength and deformation of compacted clay. They were laid along accurately surveyed courses . The asphalt was produced from a lake with a surface area of 465,000 m2 (46.5 ha or 115 acres) and a depth of about 24 m. It was estimated by Tillson in 1900 that this lake contained about 8,000,000 metric tons of asphalt (compare this against 1990 consumption in Europe and the U.S. of approximately 40,000 000 metric tons of asphalt binder). The meters were sometimes met with resistance from citizen groups; vigilantes from Alabama and Texas attempted to destroy the meters en masse. (The Carthage ruins are located in Tunisia (Northern Africa) next door to Algeria (on the left) and Libya (on the right so to speak).) Further light is shed on the use of PCC as a surfacing layer by Hubbard (1910): If motor traffic alone were to be considered, a road built entirely of cement concrete might prove the most satisfactory and economical form for the future. This added to the piecemeal approach to paving roads in London. More traffic on certain roads required the roads to become stronger and more reliable. The law that really got Texas farmers "out of the mud" was the Colson-Briscoe Act of 1949, which . These bonds guarantee that sub contractors and suppliers are paid and the project is completed at no additional cost to the taxpayers. For hot-mix construction, the typical surface thickness was about 50 mm; however, this ranged from as thin as 19 mm to as thick as 125 mm. For example, in 1994, William Hartman received a patent for a method and apparatus for painting highway markings or lines. In 1846, the City of London decided to replace its wood paving slabs with granite [6], which incidentally lead to many a "robust struggle" as people were allowed to just walk off with the old wooden blocks, and many did so for their home fires. Because of this, he extended his masonry knowledge to bridge building. Table 1. Contraction joints in plain PCC slabs were recommended every 4.6 to 6.1 m. Load transfer devices (dowel bars) were used by about one-half of the states. Second, it became clear that longitudinal joints should be used every 3.0 to 3.7 m and transverse contraction joints the same (Agg [1940] and Bradbury [1938]).Clearly, not until after 1910 did PCC begin to receive widespread use. During lean times, he carved grave-stones and other ornamental work (about 1780). The evolution of pavement design will emphasize the U.S.A. and the U.K. a bit more than for other parts of the world. In the mid-1800s in Philadelphia, most of the city streets were cobblestone. These stone paved streets date back to about 4000 B.C. The Office of Road Inquiry (ORI) within the Department of Agriculture was established in 1893, headed by Civil War hero General Roy Stone. The soaking of the laboratory specimens with a surcharge (which represents the weight of the pavement) permits the material to swell and reach the adverse state of moisture which can exist in the field. In summary, the structural design of asphalt and PCC pavements up to the 1950s (where this section stops) was a function of an evolutionary process beginning with the Romans then Telford and Macadam. Some of those roads remain in use more than 2,000 years later, and the fundamental techniques form the basis of today's roads. Sir Walter Raleigh is even recorded as having used asphalt to re-caulk his fleet of ships. However, its important to note that new advancements take place in asphalt paving and concrete repair on almost a daily basis. Telford designed the system of raising the foundation of the road in the center to act as a drain for water. The $25 million dollars given to this cause were not enough to build anything substantial. A review of the associated patent claims reveals that Warren, in effect, patented asphalt concrete, the asphalt binder, the construction of asphalt concrete surfaced streets and roads, and the overlayment of old streets. This law provided $25 million dollars to state agencies for the construction of highways. Bellis, Mary. This resulted in use of such fines resulting in the more traditional dense graded base materials which in turn produced pavement thicknesses as thin as 100 to 150 mm. William Lanchester improved and patented the design in 1902, but it was not until the 1950s that disc brakes became popular and eventually standard on most passenger vehicles. Lots of work has gone into the smooth, sturdy roads we take today. By the time the war ended, the roads commonly used by the public were in disrepair. CA License #1036777 | Copyright 2023 Always Paving Inc. All rights reserved. Compare these results to contemporary compressive strengths of 34.5 to 137.9 MPa. Crandell, and R.L. One of the first uses of tar and asphalt was in Paris in 1824. To help support the movement of legions throughout their empire, the Romans developed techniques to build durable roads using multiple layers of materials atop of deep beds of crushed stone for water drainage. Chan and C.L. During the late 1800s, the average cost was estimated to be about $0.70 per m2 per year. . In 1893 in Springfield, Massachusetts,bicycle mechanics Charles and Frank Duryea built the first gasoline-powered "motor wagon" to be operated in the United States.They formed the first company to manufacture and sell gasoline-powered vehicles, although they sold very few. The lean PCC base (for example, a 1:4:7 mix as used by Seattle) actually was beneficial for brick surfaced pavements (after Jaster et al., 1938): In the book Highway Practice of the USA, the following PCC mileages (centerline presumably) were listed for the U.S.: By the 1930s, several PCC pavement design features began to evolve. One of the first paved roads in America was Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, D.C. Traffic congestion became a huge problem. Instead of building the highways that the public wanted, all of the governments resources were dedicated to building roads that the military needed. They were invented by J.P. Knight. One likely reason for this was the lack of a consistent specification for the early cements. Always Paving Inc., 26010 Eden Landing Rd C1, Hayward CA 94545. marks the first recorded evidence of asphalt being used in road construction. The methods appeared to provide satisfactory results for the then prevailing traffic. After a $50 wager was set, Dr. Jackson was on the road. And although hard-topped roads were still in short supply even in the eastern part of the US, their construction began to accelerate, with the country's paved highway length more than doubling . The first paved roads in the world were in ancient Mesopotamia. In 1926 the sale of pneumatic truck tires topped solids for the first time., The development of the balloon tire has so reduced load concentrations that even though traffic volumes have greatly increased, the damaging effects of impact formerly experienced have practically disappeared.. Unlike a lot of early roads, the National Road was built to last from the start and it was paved with broken stones. From the twisty mountain backroads to superhighways, our roads have deep and fascinating history. In 1921 for the states of Washington, Oregon, California, Nevada, and Arizona, approximately 770 lane-kilometers (3.6 m lanes) of asphalt concrete pavement were constructed.

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